What Type of Study if the Research Is a Review of Data From Another Study

This article examines the office of documents as a data source in qualitative research and discusses document assay procedure in the context of actual inquiry experiences. Targeted to research novices, the article takes a nuts-and-bolts arroyo to certificate analysis. It describes the nature and forms of documents, outlines the advantages and limitations of document analysis, and offers specific examples of the use of documents in the research procedure. The application of certificate analysis to a grounded theory study is illustrated.

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Document Analysis as a Qualitative

Research Method

Glenn A. Bowen

WESTERN CAROLINA University

Abstruse

This article examines the function of documents as a data source in qualitative inquiry and discusses

document analysis process in the context of actual enquiry experiences. Targeted to research

novices, the article takes a nuts-and-bolts approach to document assay. It describes the nature

and forms of documents, outlines the advantages and limitations of document analysis, and offers

specific examples of the use of documents in the research process. The application of certificate

analysis to a grounded theory written report is illustrated.

Keywords: Content analysis, documents, grounded theory, thematic analysis, triangulation.

Organisational and institutional documents have been a staple in qualitative inquiry for

many years. In recent years, at that place has been an increase in the number of research reports

and journal articles that mention document analysis every bit part of the methodology. What has

been rather glaring is the absence of sufficient detail in most reports found in the reviewed

literature, regarding the procedure followed and the outcomes of the analyses of documents.

Moreover, in that location is some indication that certificate analysis has not always been used effectively

in the inquiry process, even by experienced researchers.

This article examines the place and function of documents in qualitative enquiry. Written

mainly for enquiry novices, the article describes the nature and forms of documents, outlines

the strengths and weaknesses of document analysis, and offers specific examples of the employ

of documents in the inquiry procedure. Suggestions for doing document analysis are included.

The key purpose of this article is to increase knowledge and agreement of

document analysis every bit a qualitative research method with a view to promoting its effective

use.

DEFINING DOCUMENT Assay

Document assay is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents—both

printed and electronic (computer-based and Internet-transmitted) textile. Similar other ana-

lytical methods in qualitative research, document analysis requires that data be examined

and interpreted in order to arm-twist meaning, gain agreement, and develop empirical

knowledge (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; see also Rapley, 2007). Documents contain text (words)

and images that have been recorded without a researcher's intervention. For the purposes

of this discussion, other mute or trace evidence, such as cultural artifacts, is non included.

Atkinson and Coffey (1997) refer to documents as 'social facts', which are produced, shared,

and used in socially organised ways (p. 47).

Documents that may be used for systematic evaluation as part of a study accept a variety

of forms. They include advertisements; agendas, omnipresence registers, and minutes of meetings;

manuals; background papers; books and brochures; diaries and journals; issue programs

(i.e., printed outlines); letters and memoranda; maps and charts; newspapers (clippings/art-

Bowen, Glenn A., 2009, 'Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method', Qualitative Research Journal, vol. 9, no. ii, pp. 27-40. DOI 10.3316/QRJ0902027. This is a peer-reviewed article.

icles); press releases; plan proposals, application forms, and summaries; radio and televi-

sion programme scripts; organisational or institutional reports; survey data; and various public

records. Scrapbooks and photo albums can too furnish documentary textile for enquiry

purposes. These types of documents are establish in libraries, paper athenaeum, historical

society offices, and organisational or institutional files.

Researchers typically review prior literature every bit part of their studies and incorporate that

data in their reports. However, where a list of analysed documents is provided, information technology

often does not include previous studies. Surely, previous studies are a source of data, requiring

that the researcher rely on the clarification and interpretation of data rather than having the

raw data as a basis for assay.

The analytic procedure entails finding, selecting, appraising (making sense of), and syn-

thesising data contained in documents. Certificate analysis yields information—excerpts, quotations,

or entire passages—that are then organised into major themes, categories, and case examples

specifically through content analysis (Labuschagne, 2003).

RATIONALE FOR DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

Document assay is often used in combination with other qualitative research methods as

a ways of triangulation—'the combination of methodologies in the study of the same

phenomenon' (Denzin, 1970, p. 291). The qualitative researcher is expected to draw upon

multiple (at least two) sources of evidence; that is, to seek convergence and corroboration

through the use of different data sources and methods. Apart from documents, such sources

include interviews, participant or not-participant observation, and physical artifacts (Yin,

1994).

By triangulating information, the researcher attempts to provide 'a confluence of prove that

breeds credibility' (Eisner, 1991, p. 110). By examining data collected through dif-

ferent methods, the researcher can corroborate findings across information sets and thus reduce the

affect of potential biases that can exist in a single study. According to Patton (1990), trian-

gulation helps the researcher guard against the accusation that a study's findings are simply

an artifact of a single method, a single source, or a single investigator's bias.

Mixed-methods studies (which combine quantitative and qualitative research techniques)

sometimes include document analysis. Here is an example: In their large-calibration, 3-year

evaluation of regional educational service agencies (RESAs), Rossman and Wilson (1985)

combined quantitative and qualitative methods—surveys (to collect quantitative information) and

open up-ended, semistructured interviews with reviews of documents (every bit the primary sources

of qualitative data). The certificate reviews were designed to identify the agencies that played

a role in supporting school improvement programs. The authors examined mainly the mis-

sions of the agencies as described in documents and reported that 'some RESAs promoted

the prototype of general assistance agencies, providing help in many areas, whereas others focused

their assistance more specifically on the provision of knowledge through training and tech-

nical help' (p. 636). As well, Sogunro (1997) used questionnaires combined with interviews,

document analyses, and straight observations to examine the impact of grooming on leadership

development. Offering exemplary clarity apropos the use of documents, Sogunro reported

that a review of a nineteen-twelvemonth-former leadership training program's records provided information

on the history, goals, objectives, enrolments, and substantive content. Specific leadership

competencies or skills were identified also through a review of program documents.

28 | Qualitative Enquiry Periodical, vol. ix, no. 2, 2009

As a research method, document analysis is specially applicative to qualitative case

studies—intensive studies producing rich descriptions of a unmarried phenomenon, event, organ-

isation, or program (Pale, 1995; Yin, 1994). Non-technical literature, such equally reports and

internal correspondence, is a potential source of empirical data for case studies; for example,

data on the context within which the participant operates (Mills, Bonner, & Francis, 2006).

Furthermore, as Merriam (1988) pointed out, 'Documents of all types can help the researcher

uncover pregnant, develop understanding, and observe insights relevant to the enquiry

problem' (p. 118).

Angers and Machtmes (2005) reported that they analysed documents as part of their

ethnographic example study, which explored the beliefs, context factors, and practices of middle-

schoolhouse teachers that led exemplarily to a engineering science-enriched curriculum. The authors

stressed the need to triangulate the written report methods (which likewise included observations and

interviews) so as to validate and corroborate data obtained during the study. However, Angers

and Machtmes failed to identify the documents analysed—fifty-fifty the nature or blazon of docu-

ments—and the analytical procedure employed. They stated only that 'documents were

collected from the schoolhouse system website' (p. 772).

It is important to note here that qualitative research requires robust data collection

techniques and the documentation of the research procedure. Detailed data virtually

how the study was designed and conducted should be provided in the research report.

Whereas document assay has served mostly every bit a complement to other enquiry methods,

it has also been used as a stand-solitary method. Indeed, there are some specialised forms of

qualitative research that rely solely on the analysis of documents. For example, Wild,

McMahon, Darlington, Liu, & Culley (2009) did a 'diary report' that examined engineers'

information needs and certificate usage. They used the data to generate new 'document utilize'

scenarios and a 'proof of concept' test of a related software organization.

For historical and cantankerous-cultural research, relying on prior studies may be the only realistic

arroyo (Merriam, 1988). In his dissertation research, Gagel (1997) conducted an in-depth

assay of publications on literacy and engineering science, following a process known as hermen-

eutic inquiry. He investigated the works of over 200 authors and institutions from across

12 different fields or disciplines and besides used a technique known as 'phenomenological re-

flection' to elicit essential and incidental themes.

The rationale for document analysis lies in its role in methodological and data triangula-

tion, the immense value of documents in instance study enquiry, and its usefulness as a stand up-

lone method for specialised forms of qualitative inquiry. Understandably, documents may

be the only necessary data source for studies designed within an interpretive image, as

in hermeneutic enquiry; or it may simply be the but feasible source, as in historical and cross-

cultural research. In other types of research, the investigator should guard against over-reliance

on documents.

SPECIFIC USES OF DOCUMENTS

Documents tin can serve a diversity of purposes as part of a research undertaking. Allow us consider

5 specific functions of documentary material.

Offset, every bit indicated to a higher place, documents tin provide data on the context inside which research

participants operate—a example of text providing context, if one might plough a phrase. Begetting

witness to past events, documents provide background information also as historical insight.

Such data and insight can help researchers understand the historical roots of specific

Glenn A. Bowen,'Document Analysis equally a Qualitative Inquiry Method' | 29

issues and can indicate the weather that impinge upon the phenomena currently under

investigation. The researcher tin can utilise information drawn from documents, for case, to contextu-

alise data collected during interviews.

Second, information independent in documents can suggest some questions that demand to

be asked and situations that need to be observed as function of the research. For instance,

Goldstein and Reiboldt (2004) did document analysis to assistance generate new interview

questions as they conducted a longitudinal ethnographic study of service employ among families

living in poor urban communities. Their research demonstrated how one method can

complement another in an interactive manner. Equally the authors explicate, 'interview data helped

focus specific participant observation activities, document analysis helped generate new in-

terview questions, and participant ascertainment at customs events provided opportunities

to collect documents' (Goldstein & Reiboldt, 2004, p. 246).

Third, documents provide supplementary research data. Information and insights derived

from documents can be valuable additions to a cognition base. Researchers should therefore

browse library catalogues and archives for documents to be analysed as function of the research

process. In her written report of closure of technology instructor education programs, a university-based

scholar used paper reports, academy policy documents, and section self-evaluation

data to supplement information gained through interviews (Hoepfl, 1994, equally cited in Hoepfl, 1997).

Similarly, Hansen (1995) analysed periodical entries and memos written by participants, equally a

supplement to interview data, in his study of applied science teachers in grooming. For their function,

Connell, Lynch and Waring (2001) separately employed certificate analysis in their invest-

igations of the social milieu within organisations. They used certificate assay to supplement

information from other sources, such as semi-structured interviews and observation, as they developed

a number of case studies.

Quaternary, documents provide a ways of tracking change and development. Where various

drafts of a item document are accessible, the researcher can compare them to identify

the changes. Fifty-fifty subtle changes in a draft tin reflect substantive developments in a project,

for example (Yin, 1994). The researcher may as well examine periodic and terminal reports (where

available) to get a clear picture show of how an arrangement or a programme fared over fourth dimension.

Fifth, documents can be analysed as a mode to verify findings or corroborate evidence

from other sources. Sociologists, in particular, typically use document analysis to verify their

findings (Angrosino & Mays de Pérez, 2000). If the documentary testify is contradictory

rather than corroboratory, the researcher is expected to investigate further. When at that place is

convergence of information from different sources, readers of the research report unremarkably

have greater confidence in the trustworthiness (credibility) of the findings.

Atkinson and Coffey (1997, 2004) suggest researchers to consider carefully whether and

how documents tin can serve detail research purposes. Every bit the authors emphasise:

We should not use documentary sources as surrogates for other kinds of information. We cannot, for

instance, learn through records alone how an arrangement actually operates day-by-twenty-four hours.

Equally, we cannot treat records—however 'official'—as firm evidence of what they report.

… That potent reservation does non mean that we should ignore or downgrade documentary

information. On the contrary, our recognition of their existence as social facts alerts united states to the necessity

to care for them very seriously indeed. We accept to approach them for what they are and what

they are used to accomplish. (Atkinson & Coffey, 1997, p. 47)

In sum, documents provide background and context, additional questions to be asked,

supplementary information, a ways of tracking change and evolution, and verification of findings

xxx | Qualitative Research Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 2009

from other information sources. Moreover, documents may be the well-nigh effective means of gathering

data when events can no longer be observed or when informants have forgotten the details.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF DOCUMENT Analysis

In relation to other qualitative research methods, document analysis has both advantages

and limitations. Let united states look beginning at the advantages.

•

Efficient method:

Certificate analysis is less time-consuming and therefore more efficient

than other enquiry methods. It requires data

pick

, instead of data

collection

•

Availability:

Many documents are in the public domain, peculiarly since the advent of

the Internet, and are obtainable without the authors' permission. This makes document

analysis an bonny option for qualitative researchers. As Merriam (1988) argued, locating

public records is express but by 1'due south imagination and industriousness. An important

maxim to keep in mind is that if a public event happened, some official record of it most

likely exists.

•

Cost-effectiveness:

Document analysis is less costly than other research methods and is

often the method of choice when the collection of new data is not viable. The data

(contained in documents) have already been gathered; what remains is for the content

and quality of the documents to exist evaluated.

•

Lack of obtrusiveness and reactivity:

Documents are 'unobtrusive' and 'non-reactive'—that

is, they are unaffected by the research process. (Previous studies found in documents are

not beingness considered here.) Therefore, document analysis counters the concerns related

to reflexivity (or the lack of information technology) inherent in other qualitative research methods. With regard

to observation, for instance, an upshot may go along differently because information technology is being observed.

Reflexivity—which requires an sensation of the researcher'south contribution to the construc-

tion of meanings fastened to social interactions and acknowledgment of the possibility

of the investigator'south influence on the inquiry—is usually non an result in using documents

for research purposes.

•

Stability:

As a corollary to being non-reactive, documents are stable. The investigator's

presence does non alter what is being studied (Merriam, 1988). Documents, then, are

suitable for repeated reviews.

•

Exactness:

The inclusion of exact names, references, and details of events makes documents

advantageous in the research process (Yin, 1994).

•

Coverage:

Documents provide broad coverage; they cover a long span of time, many

events, and many settings (Yin, 1994).

Document assay is non ever advantageous. A number of limitations inherent in

documents are described beneath.

•

Insufficient detail:

Documents are produced for some purpose other than research; they

are created independent of a research agenda. (Again, previous studies located in documents

Glenn A. Bowen,'Certificate Analysis as a Qualitative Enquiry Method' | 31

are not existence considered here.) Consequently, they ordinarily do not provide sufficient detail

to reply a research question.

•

Depression retrievability:

Documentation is sometimes not retrievable, or retrievability is difficult.

Equally Yin (1994) has noted, access to documents may be deliberately blocked.

•

Biased selectivity:

An incomplete collection of documents suggests 'biased selectivity'

(Yin, 1994, p. fourscore). In an organisational context, the available (selected) documents are

probable to be aligned with corporate policies and procedures and with the agenda of the

arrangement's principals. However, they may also reflect the accent of the particular

organisational unit that handles record-keeping (e.1000., Human Resources).

These are really potential flaws rather than major disadvantages. Given its efficiency and

cost-effectiveness in particular, document analysis offers advantages that clearly outweigh

the limitations.

ANALYSING DOCUMENTS

Document assay involves skimming (superficial examination), reading (thorough test-

ination), and interpretation. This iterative process combines elements of content analysis

and thematic analysis. Content analysis is the procedure of organising data into categories

related to the central questions of the inquiry. Some qualitative enquiry experts may object

to content analysis, contending as Silverman (2000) did, that information technology obscures the interpretive

processes that turn talk into text. Those enquiry experts should comport in mind that documents

include more than transcriptions of interviews and other forms of talk. Further, the kind of

content analysis that I recommend excludes the quantification typical of conventional mass

media content analysis (although quantitative content analysis tin be useful in providing a

crude overall picture of the material existence reviewed, with indications of the frequency of

terms). Rather, it entails a beginning-laissez passer document review, in which meaningful and relevant

passages of text or other data are identified. The researcher should demonstrate the capacity

to identify pertinent data and to split it from that which is not pertinent

(Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Strauss & Corbin, 1998).

Thematic assay is a class of pattern recognition within the information, with emerging themes

condign the categories for analysis (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). The process involves

a careful, more focused re-reading and review of the data. The reviewer takes a closer await

at the selected information and performs coding and category construction, based on the data's

characteristics, to uncover themes pertinent to a phenomenon. Predefined codes may be

used, especially if the document analysis is supplementary to other research methods employed

in the study. The codes used in interview transcripts, for example, may be applied to the

content of documents. Codes and the themes they generate serve to integrate information gathered

past different methods. The researcher is expected to demonstrate objectivity (seeking to

represent the enquiry material adequately) and sensitivity (responding to fifty-fifty subtle cues to

meaning) in the selection and assay of data from documents.

Fereday and Muir-Cochrane (2006) explicate how their analysis of the raw information from or-

ganisational documents (and interview transcripts) progressed towards the identification of

overarching themes that captured the phenomenon of performance feedback in the self-equally-

sessment of nursing do in Commonwealth of australia. The researchers analysed 16 policies or procedures,

including performance appraisement documents from wellness-care organisations. Aiming to

32 | Qualitative Research Journal, vol. ix, no. 2, 2009

demonstrate rigour in the analysis, the researchers engaged in 'a comprehensive process of

information coding and identification of themes' (p. 4). The analysis revealed that policy statements

emphasised functioning appraisal equally a collaborative process between the manager and the

nurse, and the importance of discussing the appraisal interview on a one-to-1 basis.

EVALUATING THE EVIDENCE

Although documents tin can be a rich source of data, researchers should look at documents

with a critical center and be cautious in using documents in their studies. Documents should

non exist treated as necessarily precise, accurate, or complete recordings of events that have

occurred. Researchers should not simply 'lift' words and passages from bachelor documents

to be thrown into their research report. Rather, they should constitute the meaning of the

document and its contribution to the bug being explored.

The researcher as analyst should determine the relevance of documents to the research

problem and purpose. Also, the researcher should define whether the content of the doc-

uments fits the conceptual framework of the written report. Information technology is necessary, too, to determine the

authenticity, credibility, accuracy, and representativeness of the selected documents.

It is important that the documents be assessed for abyss, in the sense of being

comprehensive (covering the topic completely or broadly) or selective (roofing merely some

aspects of the topic). The researcher should make up one's mind, too, whether the documents are even

(counterbalanced) or uneven (containing not bad detail on some aspects of the bailiwick and little or

zero on other aspects).

The researcher should consider the original purpose of the document—the reason it was

produced—and the target audition. Information nearly the author of the certificate and the

original sources of information could as well be helpful in the assessment of a document. The

researcher should exist concerned with whether a document was 'written as a upshot of firsthand

experience or from secondary sources, whether it was solicited or unsolicited, edited or un-

edited, anonymous or signed, and then on' (Webb, Campbell, Schwartz, & Sechrest, 1966,

as cited in Hodder, 2000, p. 704). In addition, considering documents are context-specific, they

should be evaluated confronting other sources of data.

In cases where previous studies are used equally a data source, it is important to examine more

than the research findings. The analyst should also place the blueprint (cross-sectional or

longitudinal), methods, and instruments as well equally the theoretical framework of each study.

'How many documents should I look at?' I can hear the get-go researcher inquire that

question. Although it is a legitimate question, the concern should not be nigh 'how many';

rather, it should be nearly the quality of the documents and the prove they contain, given

the purpose and design of the study. Information technology is generally ameliorate to accept access to a broad assortment of

documents providing a preponderance of show, specially when the report is relying

heavily or solely on documents. When documents are being used for verification or support,

however, even a few tin can provide an effective means of completing the research.

The absence, sparseness, or incompleteness of documents should suggest something

virtually the object of the investigation or the people involved. What it might advise, for ex-

aplenty, is that sure matters have been given petty attention or that sure voices have not

been heard. The researcher should exist prepared to search for additional, related documents,

which could fill gaps in the data and shed light on the issues being investigated.

Document analysis, and so, is not a affair of lining upwardly a series of excerpts from printed

material to convey whatever idea comes to the researcher'south mind. Rather, it is a process of

Glenn A. Bowen,'Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method' | 33

evaluating documents in such a way that empirical knowledge is produced and understanding

is developed. In the procedure, the researcher should strive for objectivity and sensitivity, and

maintain balance between both.

In the next section, I illustrate the application of document analysis to a grounded theory

study. As explained by Strauss and Corbin (1990), 'A grounded theory is one that is induct-

ively derived from the study of the phenomenon it represents. That is, it is discovered, de-

veloped, and provisionally verified through systematic data collection and analysis of information

pertaining to that miracle' (p. 23).

USING DOCUMENTS IN GROUNDED THEORY RESEARCH

The use of documents was integral to my grounded theory report of Social Funds (Bowen,

2003, 2005). A Social (Investment) Fund is both an intervention and the agency that

manages the intervention. As an intervention, it takes the form of monetary allocations to

bargain with poverty-related problems. As an agency, the Social Fund provides grants for minor-

scale evolution projects that are identified, prepared, and implemented by the community

(Bowen, 2005). In Jamaica, where I did fieldwork for the study, the Social Fund is a major

antipoverty initiative of the national government. The Jamaica Social Investment Fund

(JSIF) supports community-based projects (subprojects) designed to rehabilitate and aggrandize

social and economic infrastructure, improve social services, and strengthen local organisations.

Community-based organisations, not-governmental organisations, and local governments

play the role of local sponsors.

My study employed a multimethod approach, encompassing semistructured interviews,

nonparticipant observation, and document assay, adhering to the principles of the

grounded theory methodology (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1998).

Although data in most grounded theory studies come from interviews and observations,

entire studies can be conducted with but documents (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Pandit

(1996) conducted one such study, using existing literature and documents to create two

case-study databases from which a grounded theory of corporate turnaround was generated.

The documents took the class of reports in newspapers, merchandise journals, business journals,

government publications, broker reviews, annual company documents, and press releases.

Turner'due south (1983) use of similar cloth in the qualitative assay of organisational behaviour

—with documentary sources being 'treated like sets of field notes'—influenced the Pandit

report. In this regard, 'Assay and category generation was commenced at the first paragraph

of the report, and a theoretical framework generated which would handle the aspects perceived

to be of involvement to each paragraph' (Turner, 1983, p. 342).

In my study, it was vital that the voices and views of ordinary people exist heard. It was

most unlikely, I reasoned, that existing documents would be a reservoir or conduit for those

voices and views. Therefore, I fabricated interviews my primary data collection method.

Thirty-iv respondents were interviewed individually at eight rural and urban sites

where subprojects had been implemented. Ten key informants (knowledgeable insiders from

the community and from external agencies) provided boosted data and description of

specific issues. Observation of community conditions and processes was included as a ways

to help determine what was being done, how, and by whom. Information technology allowed me to develop a

deeper and fuller understanding of how a Social Fund-supported subproject may affect

community life in general and poverty in item. Field observation was washed during the

same period in which the interviews were conducted.

34 | Qualitative Research Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 2009

Document analysis was a complementary data collection process in support of trian-

gulation and theory building. Glaser and Strauss (1967) chosen attending to the usefulness

of documents for theory edifice—a procedure that 'begs for comparative analysis [with the

library offering] a fantastic range of comparison groups, if only the researcher has the ingenu-

ity to find them' (p. 179).

My methodical search for relevant documents over several months proved fruitful. I re-

viewed approximately 40 documents, placed them in context, and coded them for analysis

(Bowen, 2003). These included Social Fund policy- and project-related documents, minutes

of meetings, letters, newsletters, annual and special reports, and 26 newspaper articles (news

stories, features, opinion columns, and editorials). Only a few documents were made available

at the research sites. Near organisations had omnipresence records also as minutes and reports

of meetings; some had scrapbooks and files containing newspaper clippings, pictures, letters,

flyers, programme schedules, and similar documents. For the most role, interview respondents

referred to these documents rather than provide me with copies. Yet, I obtained copies

of the following documents: an annual report of a national foundation, with statistical data

on a subproject sponsor; a brochure on a funded programme together with a letter from a high

schoolhouse, containing anecdotal data on the programme's impact; and the text of a tribute to a

rural customs leader who initiated a subproject. These documents were rich sources of

information.

Minutes of meetings of community-based organisations told me near subproject activ-

ities in local communities. The minutes were a remnant or artifact of organisational continue-

ings; they told a story of situations, processes, and outcomes in the organisation. I treated

them as authentic because, in well-nigh cases, they were 'signed' by the president and secretary

and added to the official records of the system.

Archival inquiry included both electronic and hard-copy issues of Jamaica's two daily

newspapers:

The Gleaner

(the country's newspaper of record for a century and a half) and

The Observer

. I downloaded data on Jamaica'due south community-based organisations from a

government agency (Social Development Commission) website and perused 2 government

publications: the

Survey of Living Conditions

(Statistical Institute of Jamaica/Planning In-

stitute of Jamaica, 1998) and

A Review of Children's Homes and Places of Safety

(Ministry

of Wellness, May 2003). I examined the news and editorial content of the newspapers dating

back to 1995, a yr before Jamaica'due south Social Fund was incorporated and three years before

the showtime funded subproject examined in my study was initiated.

The documents from which I mined information were incomplete, bitty, and selective,

in that only the positive aspects of the subproject or of the sponsoring organization were

documented. In many cases, the documents were uneven, with all-encompassing data on

some subproject components or activities and virtually nothing on others. Nevertheless,

documents were useful in providing a behind-the-scenes look at some subprojects and follow-

up activities that were non observed.

Examples of the documents selected and the data analysed are given in Table 1.

The

Man Evolution Study

(UNDP, 2003), for instance, contains the Human Develop-

ment Index, a measure of standard of living and quality of life, which was used for cross-

national comparisons between Jamaica and other Caribbean countries.

The documentary data were analysed together with data from interviews and observations,

and so that themes would emerge across all three sets of information.

Glenn A. Bowen,'Document Analysis equally a Qualitative Research Method' | 35

Tabular array i: A Sampling of Documents and Information Analysed

Data analysedDocuments selected

Importance of equitable citizen participation in decision-

making processes

Community Participation in Projects Funded by the Jamaica

Social Investment Fund: 'Making Your Project More Participat-

ory' (JSIF, n.d.)

Human Development Index and related data Millennium Development Goals: A Compact amidst Nations to

End Human Poverty—Human being Development Study 2003 (UNDP,

2003)

List of approved subprojects Jamaica Social Investment Fund's Annual Written report 2002–2003

(JSIF, 2003)

Relationship between poverty and sanitary facilities, specific-

ally the utilise of latrines

Jamaica' south Survey of Living Conditions (STATINJA/PIOJ, 1998)

Data on Peer Mediation Program in schools, a JSIF-financed

subproject

Alphabetic character from a High Schoolhouse Guidance Counsellor to the Assistant

Youth Coordinator at a local Mediation Centre (eleven April 2003)

Contextual data for the research on a girls home (a refuge

for young, female wards of the country), which was supported

by the Social Fund

A Review of Children's Homes and Places of Safety (Ministry of

Health, May 2003)

Information on Jamaica's Social Fund equally an anti-poverty strategy Update on the National Poverty Eradication Programme

2001– 2002 (JSIF, n.d.)

Role of the St. Elizabeth Homecoming Foundation, a local

subproject sponsor, which organised Homecoming Week

activities

'A Week that was Potent' (The Gleaner, 4 December 1999)

Demographic and economic statistics Globe Development Written report 2003: Sustainable Development in

a Dynamic Economy (The World Bank, 2003)

Source: Bowen (2003)

A thorough, systematic review of documentation provided background information that

helped me empathise the sociocultural, political, and economic context in which Social

Fund-supported subprojects were conceived and implemented. The documentary data served

to basis the research in the context of the Social Fund and related phenomena being in-

vestigated (i.e., 3 related concepts:

citizen participation

social capital

, and

empowerment

Apart from providing contextual richness in the research, documents were peculiarly useful

in pre- and post-interview situations. In that regard, I used information culled from documents to

cheque interview data and vice versa. Documents supplied leads for request additional, probing

questions. Data contained in documents also suggested events or situations that

needed to exist observed. Therefore, as incomplete and uneven equally they were, the reviewed

documents augmented the interview and observational information and thus served a useful purpose.

In grounded theory inquiry, as in other forms of qualitative inquiry, the investigator is

the primary musical instrument of data collection and assay. Equally such, the researcher/analyst relies

on skills as well as intuition and filters data through an interpretive lens. As researcher/analyst,

I extracted and analysed data from documents as part of theoretical sampling—that is,

'sampling on the basis of concepts that accept proven theoretical relevance to the evolving

36 | Qualitative Inquiry Periodical, vol. 9, no. 2, 2009

theory' (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 176). I reviewed line, phrase, sentence, and paragraph

segments from the documents and other sources to lawmaking the data. The initial coding of the

content of the documents was based on three groups of search terms: (1) the Social Fund-

assisted customs's name, (ii) the subproject title, and (three) key words related to the subpro-

ject (nature, goals, action, etc.).

The abiding comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) guided the information assay,

which was based on an inductive arroyo geared to identifying patterns and discovering

theoretical properties in the data. In a back-and-along interplay with the data, I constantly

checked and rechecked the elemental codes and concepts. I scrutinised and compared data

with data and with codes in order to organise ideas and pinpoint concepts that seemed to

cluster together. Codes were amassed into noun categories, and these category codes

were compared across interview transcripts, observational data, respondent feedback, and

data from documents. I compared coded segments by asking, 'How is this text similar to,

or different from, the preceding text?' and 'What kinds of ideas are mentioned in both inter-

view statements and documents?' Hence, I identified similarities, differences, and general

patterns (Bowen, 2008, p. 144). If new categories were suggested past the new information, and so the

previous transcripts of interviews, together with information from field observations and documents,

were re-analysed to determine the presence of those categories. By doing then, I filled in un-

derdeveloped categories and narrowed backlog ones.

The analysis of documents was instrumental in refining ideas, identifying conceptual

boundaries, and pinpointing the fit and relevance of categories (Charmaz, 2003). But when

all the show from the documents, interviews, and observations created a consistent motion-picture show

of the fashion in which Social Fund subprojects developed, operated, and afflicted poverty-

perpetuating customs weather condition was I satisfied that the processes of data collection and

analysis were complete.

The study eventually produced a noun theory of stakeholder collaboration for

community-driven development (Bowen, 2005); and a instance study, including a socioeconomic

profile, was adult for each of the eight local communities. As posited by the theory,

communities that received Social Fund help attempted to bargain with local-level poverty-

related problems past post-obit a 4-stage process. The stages (based on interrelated them-

atic categories emerging from the data) are every bit follows: (1)

identifying problems and priorities

(ii)

motivating and mobilising

, (3)

working together

, and (4)

creating an enabling environ-

ment

(Bowen, 2005).

Showing tangible results

was one of the subthemes of the

working together

category,

which was generated partially by data from documents. In relation to this subtheme, the

Almanac Report of Jamaica's Disputes Resolution Foundation, too as Hanover Mediation

Center (local subproject sponsor) records, indicated that seventy per cent of 88 cases taken to

mediation in 2000–2002 had been resolved. In addition, an exhaustive search of the Medi-

ation Center files turned up a letter from a high school guidance counsellor, which said, in

function: 'Using anecdotal evidence, we have seen where some students are seeking out the me-

diators and guidance counselors to help them solve conflicts rather than resorting to physical

conflicts as the immediate reply'. The interviews did not unearth this set of data. Key in-

formants confirmed the authenticity of the documentary data.

Studies that draw upon documentation are plain constrained by what is bachelor

and its quality. While acknowledging their potential flaws, I confirmed through my study

that documents have a major reward over interviews and observation—that is, their lack

of reactivity. The documents analysed in my study did not have the potentially distorting

Glenn A. Bowen,'Document Analysis every bit a Qualitative Research Method' | 37

effects of the qualitative researcher'southward presence in the field in terms of behaviours, attitudes,

and feelings. To exist sure, the diverse sources of data gave a more consummate picture of the

subproject, the local sponsor, and the community than would take been given by a single

information source. The triangulation of data sources (which included documents), in consequence,

countered threats to trustworthiness, such as reactivity, researcher bias, and respondent bias.

In my report, I included other trustworthiness techniques, such as a 'thick' description of

phenomena and an audit trail, so that the procedure of theory development would exist both

visible and verifiable.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Increased agreement of document assay is vital if this research method is to be used

effectively. This commodity contributes to strengthening the cognition base and advancing united nations-

derstanding of document analysis as a qualitative inquiry method. Information technology has described specific

uses of documents and has delineated the advantages and limitations of this method. The

article includes an exemplar past which to elucidate the method—a grounded theory study

in which the systematic review of documents was completed in conjunction with interviews

and observation.

Certificate analysis is a depression-toll way to obtain empirical data equally part of a process that is

unobtrusive and nonreactive. Often, documentary evidence is combined with data from

interviews and observation to minimise bias and establish credibility. Although the strengths

of document analysis are considerable, the researcher should not use it as a stand-in for

other kinds of evidence that may be more than advisable to the inquiry problem and the study's

conceptual framework.

The researcher/analyst needs to determine not only the existence and accessibility but

as well the authenticity and usefulness of particular documents, taking into account the original

purpose of each certificate, the context in which it was produced, and the intended audition.

As the subjective interpreter of data contained in documents, the researcher should make

the procedure of analysis as rigorous and as transparent equally possible. Qualitative enquiry demands

no less.

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ABOUT THE Writer

Glenn A. Bowen is Director of the Center for Service Learning at Western Carolina University (Cul-

lowhee, North Carolina, USA). He earned his doctorate in Social Welfare at Florida International

Academy (Miami, Florida, USA) in November 2003. His articles on qualitative research methodology

accept appeared in several scholarly journals.

Glenn A. Bowen

Center for Service Learning

Western Carolina Academy

Cullowhee, North Carolina 28723

USA

Phone: + i 828 227 7184

Email: gbowen@email.wcu.edu

40 | Qualitative Research Journal, vol. 9, no. ii, 2009

... Documents can take on diverse forms; semi-public and private correspondence or writing can be treated every bit "documentary data or prove" (Coffey, 2014, p. 367). Following Bowen (2009), the analysis followed iii stages: a cursory read-through, deep reading with thorough examination, and interpretation. In the starting time phase, the author read for keyword repetition, such equally "parent," "family," "caregiver," to identify relevant passages and brainstorm the categorization process (Ryan & Bernard, 2003). ...

... It was not uncommon for class participants to post and expand on a comment similar, "I really relate to a lot of what you said in your post," in back up of a shared experience. Although Bowen (2009) offers the reminder that "documents should not be treated as necessarily precise, accurate, or complete recordings of events that have occurred" (p. 33), the fact that self and peer reflections captured teachers' experiences and thinking in realtime, as the events occurred, increases the reliability of the data (Caulley, 1983). ...

... To answer the first enquiry question, a text-based content analysis has been undertaken on the descriptors of the PIAAC direct skills measurement levels, engaging in a qualitative research (Atkinson & Coffey, 2004;Bowen, 2009;Rapley, 2007). The PIAAC's Reader Companion includes information on the concepts of literacy, numeracy and PS-TRE, likewise as descriptors for the different cognitive measurement 'levels' (OECD, 2013). ...

... Given the open access availability of the literacy, numeracy and PS-TRE definitions and descriptors in OECD's work, a qualitative text analysis has been chosen as a cost-constructive and efficient investigation method (Bowen, 2009). Text analyses take been undertaken on the literacy, numeracy and PS-TRE descriptors through marker nouns and verbs present in the original and revised Bloom taxonomy, including its synonyms (encounter Table 2). ...

PIAAC) surveys people betwixt the ages of 16 and 65 and includes an assessment of cognitive skills (literacy, numeracy and problem-solving in a engineering science-rich surroundings). In traditional educational psychology, Flower'due south taxonomy on cognitive domains is perceived as a core reference in the field and distinguishes between Low, Medium and Higher Order cognitive skills. However, Blossom'southward piece of work on the hierarchical nature of cerebral skills has not been referenced past the OECD in its PIAAC documentation. This newspaper demonstrates-through a text-based analysis of the PIAAC's definitions of skills levels-that the OECD's description of cognitive skills resembles keywords used by Bloom just does not explicitly define these through a hierarchical arroyo. Instead, loftier level cognitive skills are mainly characterised through the ability to use cerebral strategies to unfamiliar contexts exterior the adults' immediate life circumstances.

... A qualitative content analysis was conducted according to Bowen'southward systemic certificate review method. 11 Certificate excerpts were collated using descriptive coding, and through an iterative analytical process, overarching themes were identified. N-Vivo (QSR International) was used to manage the analysis. ...

Katharina Blattner

Introduction. New Zealand wellness training institutions have an of import office in supporting health workforce training programmes in the Pacific Region. Aim. To explore the experience of Pacific Island country-based doctors from the Melt Islands, Niue, and Samoa, studying in New Zealand's University of Otago distance-taught Rural Postgraduate plan. Methods. Document analysis (xvi documents) was undertaken. 8 semi-structured interviews were conducted with Pacific Island state-based students. Thematic analysis of the interviews was undertaken using the framework method. The 2 data sources were analysed separately, followed by a process to converge and approve findings. Results. For Pacific Isle countries with no previous option for formal general do preparation, access to a recognised academic programme represented a milestone. Immediate clinical relevance and applicability of a generalist medical curriculum with rural remote emphasis, delivered mainly at a distance, was identified as a major strength. Although technologies posed some bug, these were more often than not easily solved. The main challenges identified related to the provision of academic and other support. Traditional university support services and resources were campus focused and not always easily accessed by this group of students who cross educational pedagogies, health systems and national borders to report in a New Zealand program. Study for individuals worked best when information technology was function of a recognised and supported Pacific in-land training pathway. Discussion. The Academy of Otago's Rural Postgraduate program is attainable , relevant and achievable for Pacific Isle country-based doctors. The programme offers a fractional solution for grooming in general practice for the Pacific region. Student experience could be improved by tailoring and strengthening back up services and ensuring their effective commitment.

... Contudo, a experiência revela que tem sido evidente a ausência de detalhes suficientes na maioria dos relatórios encontrados na literatura quanto ao procedimento seguido due east bone resultados das análises de conteúdo. Há indícios, inclusive, de que a análise nem sempre foi utilizada de forma eficaz eastward criteriosa no processo de pesquisa mesmo por pesquisadores experientes (Bowen, 2009). ...

Rafael Rodrigues Viegas
Natasha Borali

A análise de conteúdo é um método bastante utilizado em trabalhos acadêmicos east pesquisas científicas. Contudo, no uso desse método, tem sido evidente a ausência de detalhes suficientes na maioria dos relatórios encontrados na literatura quanto ao procedimento seguido due east aos resultados das análises. Neste artigo, examinamos o lugar eastward a função da análise de conteúdo, buscando superar um pouco equally abordagens tradicionais. O objetivo cardinal deste artigo é aumentar o conhecimento, a compreensão e every bit perspectivas de fazer a análise de conteúdo como método de pesquisa qualitativa e quantitativa, com vistas a promover o seu uso efetivo due east criterioso. Para tanto, descrevemos os objetivos, os pontos fortes e fracos da metodologia, os critérios de qualidade, especialmente a triangulação, east, devido ao seu caráter sistemático, ressaltamos a possibilidade do seu emprego em pesquisas apoiadas por computador. Oferecemos dois exemplos específicos do uso de um software livre (Iramuteq) no processo de pesquisa de três decisões do Tribunal de Contas da União due east uma do Supremo Tribunal Federal.

... I would recommend grooming and utilising local teachers as materials developers to design, pilot and produce language learning materials relevant to the experience and needs of local learners." Therefore, to accost the above lacuna, methodologically, the paper engages with Bowen's (2009) proposals on document assay techniques. As a inquiry method, certificate analysis involves the identification of "meaningful and relevant passages of a text …" (Bowen, 2009: 32). ...

Caesar Jjingo
Leonard Bakize

Kiswahili is a strange language (L3) in Uganda. Since the 1990s, Uganda has experienced an increment in the importation of Kiswahili instructional materials, notably from Kenya and Tanzania. Arguably, in this situation, many teachers of Kiswahili in Uganda's lower secondary schools are generally characterising their institutions as locations of imported materials that can hardly back up its teaching, every bit an L3. This situation suggests a general famine in Uganda of informed perspectives concerning materials development for facilitating L3 pedagogies. Engaging in document analysis techniques and personal communications to constitute its methodology, the paper adopts a framework on L3 pedagogy and learning to model contemporary perspectives on materials development. The paper is envisioned to equip mainly aspiring Kiswahili materials developers in Uganda with basic theoretical insights and practical orientations to be exploited while writing drafts for their proposed materials that can suitably facilitate Kiswahili pedagogies mainly in lower secondary schools of Uganda.

... The method applied was a document analysis that combines elements of content analysis and thematic analysis (Bowen, 2009;Mathias, 2021). In the showtime stage, I skimmed through the documents to identify meaningful and relevant passages. ...

Maria Hedlund

Bogus Intelligence (AI) is beneficial in many respects, but also has harmful effects that constitute risks for individuals and society. Dealing with AI risks is a hereafter-oriented endeavor that needs to be approached in a forwards-looking way. Forwards-looking responsibleness is about who should exercise what to remedy or foreclose harm. With the ongoing EU policy process on AI development as a point of difference, the purpose of this article is to hash out distribution of forward-looking responsibility for AI development with respect to what the obligations entail in terms of burdens or assets for the responsible agents and for the evolution of AI. The analysis builds on the documents produced in the course of the European union procedure, with a particular focus on the early office of the European Parliament, the work of the High-Level Skillful Group on AI, and the Commission's proposal for a regulation of AI, and problematises furnishings of forward-looking responsibleness for the agents who are attributed forward-looking responsibleness and for the evolution of AI. 3 issues were studied: ethics past design, Artificial Full general Intelligence (AGI), and competition. Overall, the analysis of the European union policy process on AI shows that competition is the primary value, and that the perspective is technical and focused on short-term concerns. As for ethics by design, the question of which values should exist congenital into the engineering and how this should be settled remained an issue after the distribution of responsibility to designers and other technical experts. AGI never actually was an issue in this policy procedure, and it was gradually phased out. Competition inside the European union process on AI is a norm that frames how responsibility is approached, and gives rise to potential value conflicts.

... Certificate analysis method was used since there were ii documents used by the researcher, Indonesian and English language subtitles of the Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse movie. According to Bowen (2009) document analysis was a type of qualitative research in which document was interpreted by the researcher. Ary, et.al. ...

Yohanes A Deo Damar Krisnadi
Priyatno Ardi

Translating an adequate English subtitle in movies is quite difficult because there are a lot of idiomatic expressions, which cannot exist translated literally. 1 of the idiomatic expressions is English phrasal compounds. This research analyzed the types of English language phrasal compounds and the degree of acceptability of the Indonesian translation of the English phrasal compounds in Spider-Homo: Into the Spider-Verse movie. This enquiry aims to know the types of English phrasal compounds establish in the Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse movie and the acceptability of the translation of the English phrasal compounds in the Indonesian subtitle. The research was qualitative research and the research used document analysis. In gathering the data, two tables were used to collect the data. The first tabular array was about the types of English phrasal compounds according to Hockett (1958) and the second table was the translation acceptability of English phrasal compounds according to Larson (1984). The researcher plant 102 English phrasal compounds. The researcher discovered that phrasal verbs became the most frequent phrasal compounds. At that place were 97 phrasal verbs (95.one%). The researcher found 5 compound nouns (iv.ix%). Meanwhile, there was no compound adjective in the picture. Furthermore, the translation of English phrasal compounds into Indonesian was acceptable. All of the one hundred and two (102) translation fulfilled the iii criteria of a expert translation

Anton Witchell-Chibber

For one-half a century, the '5 Principles of Coexistence', which emphasise respect for territorial sovereignty and non-interference in internal affairs of other nations, were treated as customary in the People's Republic of China'south (PRC) foreign policy. However, in recent years, Red china has engaged in actions inconsistent with its non-intervention standard. Such a shift is well observed in the PRC's relationships with Sudan and Due south Sudan. Since 1989, Chinese National Oil Companies (NOCs) have played a pivotal role in developing the region's oil infrastructure and refining capabilities. As Cathay's relations have developed – through the oil manufacture, merchandise, security, diplomatic cooperation, and infrastructure projects – the boundaries of Beijing's national commitment to non-intervention has strained. Focusing on China'due south oil interests in the region, this paper aims to understand how and why Chinese strange policy has shifted from not-interference to pro-intervention in the example studies of Sudan and South Sudan using the analytical frameworks of securitisation theory and fragmented authoritarianism. Through document analysis, evidence was collated to answer the following enquiry question: How has the securitisation of oil supply chains contributed to the China'due south transition from a traditional policy of non-interference in domestic sovereign affairs to one of proactive engagement in the case studies of Sudan and South Sudan between 1989 and 2020? From a theoretical perspective, securitisation in authoritarian contexts has been underdeveloped conceptually, and greater emphasis needs to be put on the fragmentation of decision-making in the Communist china. On an empirical level, this paper may provide valuable insights equally to how the PRC might navigate its foreign policy in like crisis diplomacy incidents in hereafter. Keywords: Chinese foreign policy, free energy security, securitisation, fragmented authoritarianism

The Every Educatee Succeeds Deed (ESSA) offers states increased flexibility in how they identify, rank, label, and support underperforming schools. Initial reviews of land ESSA plans, withal, propose that identification and labeling policies take remained relatively unchanged. In this written report, we clarify all state ESSA plans to systematically decide how states' identified Comprehensive Support and Improvement (CSI) schools and the criteria they fix for those schools to exit CSI status. Nosotros depict our findings through the theory of institutional isomorphism, noting the many ways states responded similarly to ESSA. We close by because what the lack of innovation in response to ESSA flexibility might hateful for the hereafter of educational policy and the implications for schools identified as underperforming.

Yi-Ju Wang

The international mobility of university students is one of the bases to raise international competitiveness. This report aims to farther understand the trends in Taiwanese international didactics. The example written report was conducted at Providence University (PU), which accept practiced internationalized education for years. This written report adopts qualitative methodologies: documentary analysis and semi-structured interviews. The article analyzes the perceptions of PU students about their experiences as participants in an international mobility process in Thailand. We conduct questionnaires and in-depth interviews with them, in order to empathize the satisfaction of students in terms of motivation, funding resources, cultural communication, team cooperation, and cross-edge learning. This study shows joining cross-border learning does greatly improve on international mobility, particularly in the acceptance in some other culture and global exploration. Through communication between different cultures, the students have an improved understanding of Thai people's communication behaviour.

Adri. Labuschagne

For many scientists used to doing quantitative studies the whole concept of qualitative research is unclear, near strange, or 'airy fairy' - not ' real' research. Clinical scientists sometimes find it hard to have this enquiry method where the generation of hypotheses oftentimes replaces the testing thereof, explanation replaces measurement, and understanding replaces generalisability. Since qualitative research is becoming a prominent tool in medical research, information technology volition be worthwhile to accept a closer wait at what it is and how information technology works.

Constructivist grounded theory is a popular method for inquiry studies primarily in the disciplines of psychology, education, and nursing. In this commodity, the authors aim to locate the roots of constructivist grounded theory so trace its development. They examine cardinal grounded theory texts to discern their ontological and epistemological orientation. They discover Strauss and Corbin's texts on grounded theory to possess a discernable thread of constructivism in their approach to research. They also discuss Charmaz'southward landmark piece of work on constructivist grounded theory relative to her positioning of the researcher in relation to the participants, analysis of the data, and rendering of participants' experiences into grounded theory. Grounded theory can be seen as a methodological spiral that begins with Glaser and Strauss' original text and continues today. The multifariousness of epistemological positions that grounded theorists adopt are located at diverse points on this screw and are cogitating of their underlying ontologies.

Although a number of texts explore social research strategies and methods, well-nigh are express to a bones word of such methods and their associated advantages and disadvantages. Few if whatever, evaluate and compare methods in the context of actual research experiences. This paper endeavours to bridge that gap past reporting the experiences of three researchers working on three separate qualitative studies. All 3 studies were concerned with investigating the social milieu inside organizations. While the research questions were different in each case, all the researchers shared a common goal - to develop explanations for circuitous social phenomena manifest both internally and externally to each organization. The enquiry strategies, methods and information analyses employed are assessed through the personal evaluations of the researchers. Thus, a singular opportunity is offered for other researchers to do good from the practical insights and lessons learned. The collective experiences of all 3 researchers suggest that the contextual weather and constraints of each study forcefulness certain compromises, merely which chiefly, do non compromise qualitative inquiry studies.

North.R. Pandit

This paper outlines a particular arroyo to building theory that was employed in a contempo doctoral research project (Pandit, 1995). Three aspects used in conjunction indicate the projection'due south novelty: firstly, the systematic and rigorous application of the grounded theory method; secondly, the use of on-line computerised databases as a principal source of information; and, thirdly, the use of a qualitative data analysis software package to aid the procedure of grounded theory edifice.

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Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240807798_Document_Analysis_as_a_Qualitative_Research_Method

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